When is a constexpr evaluated at compile time?

Never; the C++ standard permits almost the entire compilation to occur at "runtime". Some diagnostics have to be done at compile time, but nothing prevents insanity on the part of the compiler.

Your binary could be a copy of the compiler with your source code appended, and C++ wouldn't say the compiler did anything wrong.

What you are looking at is a QoI - Quality of Implrmentation - issue.

In practice, constexpr variables tend to be compile time computed, and template parameters are always compile time computed.

consteval can also be used to markup functions.

When a constexpr function is called and the output is assigned to a constexpr variable, it will always be run at compiletime.

Here's a minimal example:

// Compile with -std=c++14 or later
constexpr int fib(int n) {
    int f0 = 0;
    int f1 = 1;
    for(int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        int hold = f0 + f1;
        f0 = f1;
        f1 = hold;
    }
    return f0; 
}

int main() {
    constexpr int blarg = fib(10);
    return blarg;
}

When compiled at -O0, gcc outputs the following assembly for main:

main:
        push    rbp
        mov     rbp, rsp
        mov     DWORD PTR [rbp-4], 55
        mov     eax, 55
        pop     rbp
        ret

Despite all optimization being turned off, there's never any call to fib in the main function itself.

This applies going all the way back to C++11, however in C++11 the fib function would have to be re-written to use conversion to avoid the use of mutable variables.

Why does the compiler include the assembly for fib in the executable sometimes? A constexpr function can be used at runtime, and when invoked at runtime it will behave like a regular function.

Used properly, constexpr can provide some performance benefits in specific cases, but the push to make everything constexpr is more about writing code that the compiler can check for Undefined Behavior.

What's an example of constexpr providing performance benefits? When implementing a function like std::visit, you need to create a lookup table of function pointers. Creating the lookup table every time std::visit is called would be costly, and assigning the lookup table to a static local variable would still result in measurable overhead because the program has to check if that variable's been initialized every time the function is run.

Thankfully, you can make the lookup table constexpr, and the compiler will actually inline the lookup table into the assembly code for the function so that the contents of the lookup table is significantly more likely to be inside the instruction cache when std::visit is run.

Does C++20 provide any mechanisms for guaranteeing that something runs at compiletime?

If a function is consteval, then the standard specifies that every call to the function must produce a compile-time constant.

This can be trivially used to force the compile-time evaluation of any constexpr function:

template<class T>
consteval T run_at_compiletime(T value) {
    return value;
}

Anything given as a parameter to run_at_compiletime must be evaluated at compile-time:

constexpr int fib(int n) {
    int f0 = 0;
    int f1 = 1;
    for(int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        int hold = f0 + f1;
        f0 = f1;
        f1 = hold;
    }
    return f0; 
}

int main() {
    // fib(10) will definitely run at compile time
    return run_at_compiletime(fib(10)); 
}